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 * How is Political ecology and development Ethics linked?**

The relationship between the two fields may appear indirect but concern with the social and human dimensions of development links them. The goal of development ethics - a better human life and societal arrangement, fits well with the political ecology implications of local studies in which attention is paid to the social political environment of the local groups, (Arne, n.d: 2). In addition, both fields are not politically neutral as they question reality, critically analyzing it in a broader context with a view to unearth underlying processes as a basis for action.

**5.0 How can the perspectives of political ecology and development ethics enhance insight into linkages between poverty, environment and development?** The perspectives of political ecology and development ethics facilitate a broader and holistic diagnosis of the constraints related to the nexus within the context of underlying processes. However, we will first give a short introduction of the linkages between poverty, environment and development.

**5.1 The linkages between poverty, environment and development**

Hayes and Nadkarni (2001, p.2) refer to the relationship between poverty, environment and development as a triangular nexus in which these aspects influence each other in complex ways. According to Gallopin, Gutman, and Maletta (1989, p.377), the two major causes of environmental degradation are the patterns of economic growth in the affluent societies and the affluent sectors within the poor countries and patterns associated with poverty. Adams (2009, p.11) also notes that while tackling human poverty is an ethical imperative of development//,// //many development projects leave many people poor and vulnerable and also degrade the environment// (WCED, 1987, p.4). On the other hand, poverty is recognized as a constraint on development. Scherr (2000, p.481) for example shows that the poor constraint agricultural growth through concentration of resources on lower value food groups for subsistence security and their inability to mobilize production and investment resources. The poor are also blamed for causing environmental degradation through placing increasing pressure on natural resources due to factors like population growth and limited resources for sustainable resource management. Duraiappah, (1998: p.2170). The above just scratches the surface, but highlights the interconnectedness of poverty, environment and development. In fact, the concept of sustainable development arose out of recognition of that nexus. Still, many development ventures continue to treat development and environment as separate fields. W.M. Adams also states that “a coherent understanding of how society and nature relate must go beyond the simple oppositionism of conventional Western environmentalism, and the limited reformism of Mainstream Sustainable Development thinking - Its view of society and environment is restricted, untheorized and naive” (2009, p.196). This highlights the relevance of the perspectives of political ecology and development ethics to understand these linkages.
 * 5.2 How the perspectives of political ecology and development ethics are useful in understanding the above linkages?**

This section is divided into two parts: one discusses the usefulness of the perspectives in a general sense and another focuses on how the flaws in the international system highlight the importance of the perspectives of political ecology and development ethics.

**5.2.1 General advantages of the perspectives in understanding the linkages**

Both perspectives enable critical analysis of the nexus as a basis for integrating the aspects in decisions and practices related to development. The broader social and political context of political ecology combined with the critical questioning nature of development ethics, implies a diversion from the inadequate single-factor explanations of ecological concerns thereby recognizing the multiple causative factors. In the context of the nexus, it implies a critical analysis of environment and development, dissecting them with a view to establish the overlaps and in roads into the territory of the linked aspects. Although the linkages are widely acknowledged, problems associated with development and the environment are often addressed independently. As a result, development projects have frequently led to undesired environmental degradation (Gallopin, Gutman and Malleta, 1989, p.377). A major challenge in this respect is limited understanding of the causes/ explanations behind these concerns- thus ignoring the context of the problem: underlying political, social and economic causes. According to Adams (2009, p. 24, p.272) overcoming that challenge is inevitably political and there is need to understand the nexus in light of political economic structures and decisions by actors both at the local, national and global levels- political ecology.

However, to attach real meaning to the rich explanations that arise from critical reflections, the human and social elements are important. Experience has shown that ignoring humanity as an integral part of environment and development solutions adds up to numerous problems for the world’s people. Indeed, the development ethics perspective highlights a diversion from the conventional development thinking of economic growth (limited) to considering it as the qualitative enrichment of human beings in all relevant aspects of human life (Astroulakis, 2010, p.1). Similarly, political ecology considers the socio-political environments of local people. Drawing on both perspectives, understanding of the nexus requires consideration of : Economic: more production and income: Social: equity, justice, less poverty: Human: education, health, gender equality: Cultural: indigenous cultural values versus foreign culture: Political: participation of various socio-economic groups in political decision making at different levels: Technological: environmental sustainability of development. Such broad perspectives are relevant in making policy and other decisions.

**5.2.2 The weaknesses in the international system – support for the perspectives of political ecology and development ethics**

The flaws of the international system in the developing world further highlight the relevance of the two perspectives in understanding the linkages. Efforts by the international system to eradicate poverty and promote development in the third world have not only failed to do so but have often led to environmental degradation. According to (Gallopin, Gutman and Malleta, 1989, p.378) unpredictability and uncertainty are growing suggesting that ways of thinking and acting are increasingly inadequate. A challenge in this regard is the single focus of interventions designed. The system of national accounts by the United Nations that has been implemented by the third world countries for over 50 years, for example, has a single focus of economic development. It does not take into consideration the contributions made by natural resources to production and as such has contributed to gross degradation of the environment, Reppetto (1992, p.13-15). Access to international markets is another global factor in the exploitation of natural resources that has facilitated persons, companies or countries to gain control over resources that might otherwise benefit the population in the area in which the resources are located, and be the benefit of more several than few. Through such systems and policies, poverty and environmental degradation have been promoted in the name development.

This situation however is political in the sense that removing or correcting the institutional or market failures, for example, would fix the problem for the poor and/or the natural resources, (Duraiappah 1998, p. 2171). The process of correcting such errors therefore calls for a perspective that is open to questioning every reality and not taking anything as a given or for granted. A broader context is also important if the underlying processes are to be unearthed. In addition, the goals of development have to be critically re-examined to ensure that interventions do not reinforce poverty but lead to meaningful people development. This can only be achieved if consideration of the situation is informed by perspectives that believe critical thinking and reflection and non-political neutrality of all decisions- political ecology and development ethics.